INDIA: PHYSICAL FORMATION, PHYSIOGRAPHY, DRAINAGE, STRUCTURE AND RELIEF AND BASICS OF SOILS

Contents

1. India Location 111

1.1. Indian Standard Time (IST) 111

1.2. Size 112

1.3. India’s Administrative Division 113

1.4. India and the World 113

2. Physical Formation of India 114

2.1. The Peninsular Block 114

2.2. The Himalayas 115

2.2.1. Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas 116

2.3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain 116

3. Physiography 117

3.1. Himalayan Mountains 118

3.1.1. Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas 120

3.1.2. Himachal and Uttrakhand Himalayas 120

3.1.3. Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas 121

3.1.4. Arunachal Himalayas 121

3.1.5. Eastern Hills and Mountains or Purvanchal 122

3.2. The Northern Plains 122

3.2.1. The Bhabar Plain 123

3.2.2. The Tarai Tract 123

3.2.3. Bhangar Plains 123

3.2.4. Khadar Plains 123

3.2.5. The Delta Plains 123

3.2.6. The Plains of Rajasthan 124

3.2.7. The Punjab Haryana Plains 124

3.2.8. The Ganga Plains 124

3.2.9. The Brahmaputra Plain 125

3.3. The Peninsular Plateau 125

3.3.1. The Deccan Plateau 126

3.3.2. The Central Highlands 127

3.3.3. The North-Eastern Plateau 127

3.4. The Indian Desert 127

3.5. The Coastal Plains 128

3.5.1. Western Coastal Plains 128

3.5.2. Eastern Coastal Plains 128

3.6. The Islands 128

3.6.1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands 128

3.6.2. Lakshadweep Islands 129

4. Drainage 129

4.1. Drainage Pattern 129

4.2. Drainage System of India 130

4.3. The Himalayan Drainage System 133

4.3.1. Landforms of Himalayan Rivers 133

4.3.2. The Indus System 133

4.3.3. The Ganga System 134

4.3.4. The Brahmaputra System 135

4.4. The Peninsular Drainage System 136

4.4.1. Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System 136

4.4.2. River Systems 136

4.4.3. East Flowing Rivers 136

4.4.4. West Flowing Rivers 137

4.5. Comparison Between Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers 138

4.6. National River Linking Project 138

4.7. National Waterways 140

5. Soil 141

5.1. Soil Properties 141

5.2. Soil Horizons 143

5.3. Soil Forming Factors 143

5.4. Soil Classification 145

5.4.1. Soil Classification in India 145

5.5. Soil Degradation 147

5.6. Soil Erosion 147

5.7. Soil Management 148

1. India Location Figure 1 – India in the world Figure 2 – India: Extent and Standard Meridian 1.2. Size Figure 3 – India: Administrative Division 1.3. India’s Administrative Division 1.4. India and the World 2. Physical Formation of India 2.1. The Peninsular Block Figure 4 – Peninsular block 2.2. The Himalayas Figure 5 – Plate tectonics and evolution of Himalayas Figure 6 – Himalaya’s syntaxes at NP (Nanga Parbat) and NB (Namcha Barwa)Figure 7 – The great plains of India Figure 8 – Physiographic division of India Figure 9 – Himalayas and Northeastern Hills Figure 10 - Cross sectional view of Himalayan system Figure 11 – Himalayan – Longitudinal Divisions 3.1.2. Himachal and Uttrakhand Himalayas 3.1.3. Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas 3.1.4. Arunachal Himalayas 3.1.5. Eastern Hills and Mountains or Purvanchal 3.2. The Northern Plains Figure 12 – Shifting course of river Kosi in last 250 years 3.2.3. Bhangar Plains 3.2.4. Khadar Plains 3.2.5. The Delta Plains 3.2.6. The Plains of Rajasthan 3.2.7. The Punjab Haryana Plains 3.2.8. The Ganga Plains 3.2.9. The Brahmaputra Plain 3.3. The Peninsular Plateau Figure 14 – Peninsular India: Relief 3.3.3. The North-Eastern Plateau 3.4. The Indian Desert 3.5. The Coastal Plains 3.5.1. Western Coastal Plains 3.5.2. Eastern Coastal Plains 3.6. The Islands 3.6.1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands 4. Drainage 4.1. Drainage Pattern Figure 16–Drainage patterns 4.2. Drainage System of India Figure 17 – Water divide between east flowing and west flowing rivers Figure 18 – Major river Basins of India 4.3. The Himalayan Drainage System Figure 19 – evolution of Himalayan Drainage 4.3.2. The Indus System 4.3.3. The Ganga System 4.3.4. The Brahmaputra System 4.4. The Peninsular Drainage System 4.4.1. Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System 4.4.2. River Systems 4.4.3. East Flowing Rivers 4.4.4. West Flowing Rivers 4.5. Comparison Between Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers 4.6. National River Linking Project Figure 20 – Inter-linking of rivers 4.7. National Waterways Figure 21 – NATIONAL WATERWAYS (NWS) OF INDIA 5. Soil 5.1. Soil Properties Figure 22 – soil texture and structure 5.2. Soil Horizons Figure 23 – cross section of Soil profile along a tree Parent Material Topography Climate Biological Activity Time 5.4. Soil Classification 5.4.1. Soil Classification in India 5.5. Soil Degradation 5.6. Soil Erosion Figure 25 – Gully erosion 5.7. Soil Management Figure 26 – soil management techniques