5.1.3. Pre-Independence Women’s Movements

The roots of the Indian women’s movement go back to the early nineteenth century when social reformers, beginning with Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), began to focus on issues concerning women. Following them, improving the condition of women became the first tenet of the Indian social reform movement. Women’s inferior status, enforced seclusion, early marriage, condition of widows and lack of education were the main facts documented by reformers throughout the country. However, women’s movement is linked to both social reform movements & the nationalist movement.

5.1.3.1. Socio-Religious Reform Movement

Women’s Organizations Started by Men

Men who belonged to the socio religious reform associations began the first organization for women. They are as follows:

1) Brahmo Samaj: It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1825 & attempted to abolish restrictions and prejudices against women, which included child marriage, polygamy, limited rights to inherit property. Education was seen as the major factor to improve the position of women.

♤ Civil Marriage Act, 1872 was passed, which permitted inter-caste marriage, legalized divorce and fixed 14 and 18 as the minimum age of marriage for girls and boys respectively.

♤ Raja Ram Mohan Roy played an important role in getting Sati abolished.

2) Prarthana Samaj: It was founded by MG Ranade & RG Bhandarker in 1867. Its objectives were more or less similar to that of Brahmo samaj but remained confined to western India. Justice Ranade criticized child marriage, polygamy, restriction on remarriage of widows and non access to education.

3) Arya Samaj: It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. Unlike the above two it was a religious revivalist movement, revitalizing the ancient Hindu traditions. It advocated reform in the caste system, compulsory education for men and women, prohibition of child marriage by law, remarriage of child widows. It was opposed to divorce & widow remarriage in general.

4) Social reformers mentioned above eulogized the position of women in ancient India. However radicals like Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Jyotibha Phule and Lokhitwadi Gopal Hari Deshmukh accused the caste system responsible for the subjugation of women in society.

5) Similar movements began in Islamic community as well. Begum of Bhopal, Syed Ahmad Khan & Sheikh Abdullah in Aligarh and Karmat Hussain in Lucknow spearheaded a movement to improve women’s education.

The male-inspired and male-guided organizations for women did valuable work in educating women and giving them their first experience with public work. While the men wanted the women to be educated and take part in public activities, but at the same time they regarded the home as the primary focus for women. Gender equality was never an agenda for any of the movements mentioned above. They had a very limited perspective of changing the position of women within the family through education, as education would improve women’s efficiency as housewives and mothers!