o the High Seas;

o the Atmosphere;

o Antarctica; and,

o Outer Space.

♤ These areas have historically been guided by the principle of the common heritage of humankind - the open access doctrine or the mare liberum (free sea for everyone) in the case of the High Seas. Despite efforts by governments or individuals to establish property rights or other forms of control over most natural resources, the Global Commons have remained an exception. These are governed by multiple treaty arrangements and conventions

2.1. United Nations Convention on The Laws of The Sea (UNCLOS)

♤ UNCLOS is an international agreement that resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), which took place between 1973 and 1982.

♤ The Convention, concluded in 1982, replaced four 1958 treaties. UNCLOS came into force in 1994.

♤ It has been ratified by 168 parties (167 states+ EU).

♤ The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans and seas establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources.

♤ It enshrines the notion that all problems of ocean space are closely interrelated and need to be addressed as a whole.