It is hard to propound Hindu ethics in a few paragraphs. They date back to Vedic period and have gone through a long period of evolution. They come from many sources, such as Vedas, Upanishads, Dharmasastras, Puranas, epics, itihasas and the like. Hindu doctrinal content has not been consolidated in a single text – though Bhagavat Gita comes closest to it. Hindu scriptures have received varying interpretations. Hindu saints and reformers altered many Hindu practices. However, we will briefly outline what are commonly considered the central Hindu doctrines with a focus on their moral content.
We can begin with the Hindu conception of the four principal moral ends of life — Dharma (moral law), Artha (wealth), ftama (desire), and Moksha (salvation). The moral ends enable men to lead a happy moral life and also attain salvation after death. Dharma signifies the rational control of human passions, appetites and desires. Dharma is the correct way in which a human being has to fulfil his personal, social and moral needs.
Commentators hold two views on the nature of dharma or moral law. Some hold that it is a command of God. God’s prescriptions cover moral actions; God’s prohibitions refer to evil deeds which men should avoid. Other writers consider that moral law is an imperative which men have to follow without exceptions. It is not embodied in God; it is, however, a moral ideal which transcends the physical world of space and time. In fact, its moral perfection lies beyond human reach; men can only strive towards that moral ideal. As we shall see, the general and specific duties of men in common life are found in Varnashrama dharma.
Artha and Kama
Before considering dharma in more detail in the form of virtuous behaviour, we may outline the concepts of Artha and ftama. Artha in the sense of wealth stands for material means of well being. A householder needs a minimum of wealth to maintain his family and to meet its wholesome desires. Artha is not an endorsement of the greed at the root of an acquisitive society. It recognises the need for money to ensure a minimum living standard and to pursue artistic and aesthetic activities.
Although ftama is desire, one can regard it as happiness arising from satisfaction of wants. The reference is not to endless desires but to those which are common to men living within family. They need not be the wants of the individual but of the whole family including children. In Hindu ethics happiness is subordinated to dharma or virtue. Moral conduct creates Punya or beneficial Karmic effect. Bad conduct creates papa or evil karmic effects. Punya leads one to heaven and papa to hell. But these states of existence seem impermanent since men will be reborn after their papa or Punya lapse.
Dharma and Moksha
Dharma in its form as virtue is the ultimate value or the end in itself. It resembles the summum bonum of the Aristotelian philosophy. The ultimate goal of Hindu religion is that soul should be liberated from the constraints of the physical world and its myriad problems. In this state, human soul transcends its empirical self and loses its worldly content. Although it is difficult to visualize this state, it can be thought of as soul without the troubles, anxieties and disturbances which characterize its earthly existences.
Moksha is conceived somewhat differently by different writers. Moksha means that the self lives in its pure spiritual form or essence. It is free from the encumbrances of the physical world of senses or of the material universe of space and time. Soul loses its vital and intellectual properties which it had while inhabiting the body. It becomes eternal and immortal. In Sankara’s interpretation, the soul merges with Brahman. Ramanuja says that it is in essential community with God. It realises infinite beatitude in God.
The above account of Hindu ethics, it is clear, relates to the individual, the way he should enjoy his earthly existence within the bounds of dharma and prepare himself for Moksha. Hinduism also has an ethic which links an individual’s morals to his membership of a social group. It is the famous Varnashrama dharma. In this version, society is divided into four occupational groups. The Brahmins have to master Vedas, practise religious ceremonies, and promote spiritualism in society. They are the guardians of the society’s academic and spiritual traditions. The ftashtriyas are the warrior class. They have to acquire military skills and defend the society against internal and external threats. The Vaishyas are the trading community who has to carry on commerce and industry. The Shudras are the artisans and craftsmen who create the amenities of civilization.
Apart from the morals arising from one’s station in society, there are duties which have to be performed at different stages of life. Thus a student (Brahmachari) has to lead a pure, chaste life,
learn Vedas, and imbibe knowledge from teachers. A man has to marry and raise a family for his happiness and social good. In the next stage of Vanaprastha, one has to dedicate himself to solitary prayer and meditation. In the final stage, man has to become a wandering monk (sanyasin), living on alms and devoting himself to service to society and God.
Obviously, the occupational patterns of society today scarcely resemble those of ancient India. The point that is still valid is that one has to faithfully work in one’s field of occupation. Thus, a soldier, fire officer or a teacher has clearly demarcated duties. As for the duties appropriate to different life stages, they have to be adopted with due regard to the enormous changes which the ancient society has undergone. The stage-of-life duties have to be related to the context of the modern society.
Countless volumes have appeared on caste in India. They are generally very critical of caste system. That the caste system has created divisions among Hindus is a fact which received constant emphasis from leaders of national movement and religious reformers. Mahatma Gandhi in particular worked hard for removing the practice of untouchability.