Epicureanismand stoicism werethetwo great schools of moral philosophythat followedAristotelian philosophy. They were founded almost at the same time. Epicureanism derives its name from its founderEpicurus (342 – 270/71B.C.) Although the school of Epicurussurvived forsix centuries, his followers made no significant changes in his doctrines. Lucretius, the famous ancient Roman poet, expressed Epicureanism in verse form in De Natura.
Epicurus regarded pursuit of happiness as the chief aim of life. We shall presently discuss his concept of happiness. Epicurus first traces the sources of human unhappiness. For a modern mind, it would appear that unhappiness arises from lack of means needed to satisfy material wants. Thus a man without a house, TV, refrigerator and car is likely to be unhappy. Realistically speaking, men in any historical
period will crave for the material comforts and amenities then available. Along with material comforts men need family ties, friendships and spiritual consolations.
Epicurus, however, identifies popular religion as the chief obstacle to human happiness. For it haunts human mind with fears of gods, death, retribution and hell. Consequently, men live in a constant psychological state of trepidation and anxiety. To rid men of these fears, Epicurus proposes a materialist philosophy which depicts the cosmos as a mechanical system governed by natural causes and not by gods or any corporeal beings. Unlike Stoics, he endows men with free will, which they can exercise in pursuing happiness during their brief terrestrial existence.
Epicurus borrows his philosophy from Democritus. Democritus also formulated the ancient form of atomic theory. Epicurus applies this theory to human soul. He regards human soul, as everything else in the universe, to be composed of atoms. The atoms in the soul are scattered at death with no possibility of future life. This doctrine enables Epicurus to dispense with both joys of paradise and terrors of hell.
Epicurus describes death as a blessing, a release from the travails of life on earth. Men need not fear death. “For if death is, we are not; if we are, death is not.” Death is the end of all feeling and consciousness. Hence, there is no need to fear a future state of which we will have no feeling when it comes.
Epicurus then proceeds to remove fears of divine intervention in human affairs. Ancient Greeks believed that gods punish men for their sins or pride (hubris). If a man achieves great success and feels proud, gods may suddenly bring him crashing down. Epicurus could have addressed these fears by advocating atheism or by denying the existence of God. But he accepts the existence of gods. He pictures gods as leading an immortal, serene and blessed life in the outer space. They live in a state of beatific joy, and never concern themselves with human affairs.
As we noted earlier, the Epicurean doctrine advocates that men should pursue happiness. In this view, they followed the earlier school of Cyrenaics. Whereas Cyrenaics regarded happiness as pursuit of gross pleasures, Epicureans adopted a pure and noble conception of happiness. In this sense, happiness is an end by itself, and it is the only good. Pain is the only evil. For Epicureans, morality becomes an activity which gives pleasure. Virtue has no intrinsic value; it derives value from the pleasure which accompanies virtuous actions. These ideas in sum constitute the Epicurean ethical system.
A good part of Epicureanism consists in elaborating or clarifying the various aspects of happiness. Happiness does not mean momentary physical or mental pleasure. Happiness is joy which lasts for the whole life. Men should avoid momentary pleasures which may often lead to greater pains later. They should not be slaves to particular pleasures and desires. They have to master their passions. They need to abandon present pleasures which lead to future pain, and be ready to undergo present pain for sake of future joy.
There is also a streak of prudence in Epicureanism. Bertrand Russell says:
It was a valetudinarian’s [or a sick man’s] philosophy, designed to suit a world in which adventurous happiness had become scarcely possible. Eat little, for fear of indigestion; drink little, for fear of next morning; eschew politics
and love and allviolently passionate activities; do not give hostages to fortune by marrying and having children; in your mental life, teach yourself to contemplate pleasures rather than pains.
Epicureanism distinguishes between physical and mental pleasures. Mental pleasures are superior to physical pleasures. Body feels physical pleasures only during their duration. Physical pleasures are ephemeral. Mental pleasures arise from remembrance. Recollection of past joy is a present delight and anticipation of future pain is a present anxiety. Therefore, to be happy, one has to cultivate mental serenity.
Men should condition their minds to rise above physical pain and adversity. They should not rely on external conditions for their happiness. They should find joy in their own hearts. Rather extravagantly, Epicureans claim that a man on rack (a medieval instrument of torture) can be happy. If we leave out the hyperbole, we can see in the Epicurean idea, a conception of happiness as an inner mental state. Its link with outward circumstances is slender. While regarding happiness as spiritual, Epicureans recognised theinnocent pleasures of senses. They particularlyvalued friendship.
The Epicurean conception of happiness is often called negative. Happiness is neither active joy nor tingling excitement. Epicureanism sought rather an absence of pain, mental serenity and calm spirit untroubled by fears and anxieties. “Absence of pain is in itself pleasure, indeed in the ultimate analysis the truest pleasure.” Active joy is beyond human reach; man should avoid pain and lead quiet and contented life.
Epicureans cautioned against multiplying one’s wants. Increasing wants are hard to satisfy and intensifyone’sunhappiness.Oneshould,therefore,lead a simplelife.Epicurusreputedlylivedmost of the time on bread and water. The route to happiness lies through moderation, simplicity and cheerfulness.
Epicureans did not preach exalted or noble morality. However, they were kind and benevolent. They said that it is better to extend than to receive kindness. Their morality is soft without stern calls to duty or harsh ethical commands. It is gentle and amiable.
Epicureanism arose at a time when the Greek world was in decline. People had lost faith in their society and its institutions. They were insecure and had no assured means of living. They lived in constant danger of violence from invaders or from local tyrants. Active public service in politics, government and army became nearly impossible. In the environment of uncertainty, people withdrew into their private, personal life. Epicureanism is a recipe for individual happiness in a troubled world.
Epicureanism is hardly a philosophy suited to energetic, dynamic and self-confident societies or individuals. It advises men to seek peace and quiet, and to detach themselves from the problems of the world. It urges men to be prudent even in pursuing happiness. Essentially it encourages men to avoid the troubles and travails of life. It hinders an active political, economic and social life. It discourages men from optimistically planning for the future welfare of their family and society.
But no man can improve himself or others without necessary effort and commitment. In the process, he will often encounter problems and troubles. However, these hurdles have to be crossed.
Fortunately, men are by nature hopeful; hope springs eternal in human heart. The religious instinct and fear of extinction are strong in men. Epicureanism was a creed which appealed to a small group of philosophers and men of letters. It did not percolate to the masses. HistoricallyEpicureanism was overtaken by Roman ideals of duty and heroic virtue. Further, Christianity preached the ethic of strenuous work and gave hope of posthumous redemption to men.