In this chapter, we examine various points of view which for one reason or another seem to undermine the very idea of ethical studies. From the beginning of philosophical inquiry, one section of thinkers doubted the value of pursuing ethical studies. This line of thought has different strands. In one view, human nature is such that men cannot genuinely pursue moral goals. Another view holds that
though men may be capable of pursuing higher ideals, it would not be in their best interests to do so. According to another strand of thought in this vein, men are incapable of pursuing moral goals since there are no fixed or objective moral criteria to distinguish the moral from the immoral. A further view holds that the actions of men are often determined not by their free will or volition but by external forces beyond human control. As a consequence, the idea of men freely choosing their actions and being responsible for such actions whether for good or bad makes no sense. There are many variations on these themes.
In simple terms, we can classify ethical doctrines into two categories: (1) those which doubt the logical validity or practical utility of ethical principles; and (2) those which propound moral doctrines such as utilitarianism or virtue ethics. Traditional textbook accounts of Ethics often present the doctrines which question the value of Ethics alongside doctrines which propound genuine systems of morality. The sceptical doctrines, strictly speaking, are not ethical theories but their refutations. When the two types of doctrine are juxtaposed, doubts are likely to arise in the minds of students causing bewilderment. It is, therefore, necessary to deal with and answer the negative arguments at the outset. Thereafter, one can discuss the major ethical systems.