Period

Philosopher/philosophic school

Central doctrines

1200 BCE to about 800 BCE

800 BCE-600 BCE

Periods of the four Vedas

Period of Upanishads

The roots of Hindu ethical ideas can be traced to the Vedas. The Vedas are divided into three sections i.e. the Mantras, the Brahmanas and Upanishads. The mantras or hymns are found in four collections or Samhitas – Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Three themes in Rigveda, the oldest Samhita, are nature worship, the concept of cosmic order and details of religious practices. Samaveda is a summary of Rigveda in musical form. Yajurveda contains the liturgy or mantras for undertaking the Vedic ceremonies. The Atharvaveda speaks more about Yoga, the human physiology, different ailments, social structure, spirituality, appreciation of natural beauty, and so on*.

In Upanishads, the highest ethical purpose of man is seen as quest for self knowledge. It is another aspect of the search for ultimate reality.

Contd....

599 BCE - 527 BCE

Mahavira (according to tradition)

The two religions arose in

563 BCE - 483 BCE

Gautama Buddha

opposition to the ritualism,

(according to tradition)

formalism and caste divisions

Buddhism and Jainism

of Hinduism. They opposed

animal sacrifices, preached non-

violence and the need to contain

human passions and cultivate

serenity.

5th to 4th

Period of Ramayana

Essence of morality is conveyed

century BCE

in Ramayana through the noble

character of Rama. Ramayana

covers individual, social and

kingly morality.

540 to 300 BCE

Period of Mahabharata

The Mahabharata discusses

personal virtues and royal

virtues. It also discusses statecraft,

diplomacy, and contains the first

account of Just War concept.

Fifth century to second century BCE

Bhagavat Gita

It is the most important Hindu religious text. It preaches that one should work sincerely without worrying about its likely outcome. It emphasises the centrality of dharma to human action. Its central theme is disinterestedaction.

Beginning around 481 BC

Sophism

Sophists are the first to deny the existence of universal, objective moral standards. This view called moral relativism argues that morality depends on conditions in particular societies, on historical circumstances and

on intellectual attitudes.

470-399 BC

Socrates

One of the greatest ethical philosophers who not only discussed moral theories and concepts but also followed them in his life. He is famous for the view that knowledge is virtue. His ideas are contained in the dialogues which Plato wrote.

Contd....

428-348 BCE

Plato

Author of the Socratic dialogues suchas theApology andthe Republic; great Idealist philosopher who denied the reality of the world of senses; considered reality to consist of eternal and unchanging Forms; known more as a philosopher and a political thinker than a moralist; identified fortitude, justice, prudence and temperance as cardinal virtues which underlie

all human virtues.

384-322 BCE

Aristotle

First academic philosopher who wrote systematically on Ethics; author of Nicomachean Ethics; first writer who discussed virtue ethics; regarded virtue as

a mean between two extreme qualities.

345 BCE-300 BCE

Kautilya’s Arthashastra

It is probably the first treatise on statecraft, administration, war, diplomacy and state regulation of economy.

323 BCE (birth of Zeno, founder

of Stoicism);

Stoics

Their morals are characterised by strict asceticism and severe austerity. Stoicism was popular also during Roman times.

341 BCE

(birth of Epicurus)

Epicureans

They advocated happiness

as the goal of life. Happiness does not imply craving for momentary pleasures. Happiness is something that

has to be pursued rationally over one’s whole life.

(354-430 AD)

1223-1274 AD

St. Augustine, a great Christian theologian and moral thinker mentioned along with

St. Thomas Aquinas St. Thomas Aquinas

Author of The City of God; was influenced by Plato

Great Catholic philosopher and

author of SummaTheologica; was greatly influenced by Aristotle

Contd....

1596-1650 AD

Descartes

F o u n d e r o f m o d e r n philosophy; his chief interest was in metaphysics; followed

Stoicism

1588-1679 AD

Hobbes,

Materialist thinkers; followed

1592-1655 AD

Gassendi

Epicureanism; Hobbes thought that men are egoistic and hungry for power.

16th century AD

Guru Nanak

Nanak founded Sikhism which preached monotheism and human brotherhood.

1671-1713 Shaftsbury

Moral sense school or

Morality is grounded in moral

1694-1746 Hutcheson

1711-76 David Hume

1723–1790 Adam Smith

sentimentalism

sentiments or emotions. They are the basis of moral judgements. These thinkers opposed Hobbes; their moral outlook emphasised

the social and the more rational side of human nature

1614–87 Henry More

1692–1752 Joseph Butler

1723–91 Richard Price

Intuitive school

This school emphasises that human beings intuitvely perceive right and wrong. It also appealed to human commonsense. In metaphysics, intuitionism holds that moral statements can be known to be true or false immediately through a kind of rational intuition. In these judgements, logical thought plays no part. Similar views were held in the 20th century by H. A.

Prichard, G. E. Moore, and David Ross.

1748-1832 Bentham 1806-73 John Stuart Mill

Utilitarianism

These writers highlighted the fact that the good is that which is beneficial to society or that which promotes human happiness. They defined ethical end as the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Utilitarianism is a dominant school of morality even today.

Contd....

1724-1804 Kant

1836-82 TH Green

Rationalist morality

According to Kant, morality consists in following the command of duty or obligation or what one ‘ought to’ do. This approach to morals is called deontology. There is no place for emotions or sentiments in morality since these are irrational. Kant was impressed by the notion of moral law. In a famous passage, he says, “Two things have always filled me with awe: the starry heavens above and the moral lawwithin[me]”. Green regarded that the end of human

life should be moral perfection.

Nineteen century

Period of Hindu religious reformism

The famous reformers, to name a few, are Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, Vivekananda,

and Raja Rammohan Roy.

Twentieth century

G.E. Moore, Sir David Ross,

A. J. Ayer, C. L .Stevenson

R. M. Hare, John Rawls

Twentieth century thinkers elaborated and critically evaluated utilitarianism– especially Act-utilitarianism and Rule-utilitarianism. They have also analysed deontological ethics in detail. During this period, philosophers also developed metaethics or analytical ethics which focuses not on formulating moral systems or standards, but on analyzing the concepts or terms which are used in Ethics. Modern philosophers generally refrain from preaching morals. They think that the task of philosophy is to clarify concepts

and not to advocate morals.

Twentieth century

Gandhi

Needs no introduction