Many decisions we take in personal, official and social life are relatively straightforward. They are based on routine and habitual responses andprocedures.They may not involve questions of morals, but in case they do, the ethical criteria applicable to them are simple and clear. Ethical dilemmas, in contrast, are situations in which decisions involve conflicts between two or more moral principles. In these situations, moral agents (who have to make decisions) find themselves in a quandary since they have to choose between two ethical norms (N1and N2) which have equal status. If the moral
agent selects N1, he has to give up N2 and vice versa. In other words, the decision involves a trade-off between two moral criteria. This is the theme we discuss in this chapter. We cover this theme in
Ethical Situations
Ethical dilemmas come up only in situations which have ethical or moral aspects or dimensions. Obviously, ordering paper, pencils or pens for office stores involves no moral questions. The criteria usedfor decision could be the requirements and the budget. Similarly,the design of a hostel or a bridge will have no moral aspects. These are non ethical contexts of decision-making.
What are the features which impart an ethical dimension to a situation? One general answer is that situations which involve issues of right and wrong are ethical situations. Moral philosophers have defined ethical situations more concretely. According to one such definition, ethical situation involves actions and decisions which are based on a moral agent’s choice and volition and which significantly affect other individuals. In addition, ethical situations are also defined by the norms, standards, criteria or principles which guide decision-making. Moral criteria or standards include: fairness, honesty, justice, integrity, truthfulness and generosity. Some writers place emphasis on justice and rights. An ethical situation directly and explicitlyinvolvesconsiderations of moral standards or
criteria. Dennis P. Wittmer defines an ethical situation essentially as one in which ethical dimensions are relevant and deserve consideration in making some choice that will have significant impact on others. According to Rest, ethical dimensions are those norms and principles that “provide the basic guidelines for determining how conflicts in human interests are to be settled and for optimizing mutual benefit of people living together in groups”.
Process of Moral Decision-Making
After defining the ingredients that impart an ethical dimension to a situation, we need to consider three more aspects. One is the process of decision-making in ethical situations. Secondly, moral criteria which come into play need consideration. Finally, we examine how civil servants and other decision makers can handle ethical dilemmas.
When administrators face uncertainty in ethical situations, they wonder what could be the morally correct and responsible decision. In this matter, they can get guidance from normative theories, decision-making models and decision processes. Normative or prescriptive principles help in determining what should be done and what is the correct course of action. Public servants are accountable and have to justify their decisions to the political executive and the public. Hence, they usually search for and base their decisions on reasons and principles. Ethical decision-making in public sphere requires detailed analysis of the situation and identification of the norms and criteria that apply to the situations. Standards and norms provide guidance to a decision and constitute its rationale. It is application of principles which makes decisions consistent, coherent and predictable. Decisions without the guidance of standards or principles will be arbitrary, capricious and unpredictable. Administrators can defend themselves against the charge that they used wrong principles in taking a decision. But they can never defend a decision which is not grounded in any principles.
There are many models of decision-making. These differ in their approach and the elements of the problem which they highlight. We will consider two important models. The processes or steps involved in taking decisions and the criteria that can guide decision-making tend to get mixed up in the models. But we should try, to the extent possible, to keep them apart.
Terry Cooper has reduced ethical decision making to a series to steps which begin with identifying the problem and end with its resolution. Although his schematized model may not be very realistic, it will enable practical administrators to place the situation within an easily intelligible analytical frame work. While going through the steps involved in taking the decision, the decision makers are free to select the appropriate moral standards. The procedure presupposes no fixed moral norms.
Perception or recognition of an ethical problem is the first step towards its resolution. Administrators can be morally insensitive or blind; they may just fail to notice the moral aspects of a problem. The failure may arise from their personality, inadequate moral development and a feeling that they are not in control and cannot influence the course of events.
Case Studies